Dog Behavior Assessment Online: Options and Costs

Remote behavior consultations are legitimate, they are now standard practice for a large share of the credentialed field, and for several case types they are genuinely better than an in-person visit. They also have hard limits that most service pages will not tell you about — a remote consultant cannot examine your dog, and in most of the United States a veterinarian who has never physically seen your dog cannot legally prescribe for it. Both facts change who you should hire.

The expensive mistake is not choosing remote over in-person. It is hiring the wrong tier of professional. "Dog behaviorist" is not a protected title anywhere in the US or most of Europe — anyone can use it — and the credential landscape hides a distinction that determines whether the person on your screen can actually help: a trainer credential and a behavior-consultant credential are different qualifications, testing different competencies, at different levels. Most owners searching for an online behaviorist end up on the website of a certified trainer, which is the right hire for manners and the wrong hire for a dog who has bitten someone. This guide explains the tiers, what remote work can and cannot do, real cost ranges, how to vet a practitioner, and where to search.

Four things called an online dog behavior assessment

Search results use assessment for products that collect very different evidence and produce very different outcomes. Choose the type before comparing providers.

A questionnaire is a baseline, not a diagnosis

The Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) is the best-known validated owner-report option. Developed by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, it measures the prevalence and severity of behavior patterns and allows an initial assessment plus follow-ups. That makes it useful for documenting change before and after a plan.

C-BARQ does not observe the dog and does not identify a medical cause. Owner-report tools inherit the owner's opportunity to observe, memory and interpretation. Their value is standardization: asking the same defined questions again produces a more comparable baseline than "he seems a little better."

AAHA also provides a shorter dog behavior client questionnaire for veterinary visits. AAHA explicitly describes it as a way to direct conversations and recognize patterns, not a substitute for a complete history. A generic internet personality quiz without published validation does not carry the same evidentiary weight.

An AI report organizes visible evidence

An automated photo or video report can list posture, ear, eye, mouth, tail and weight-distribution markers that were difficult to describe. It can help you prepare an incident log or select footage for a consultation. It does not perform a functional assessment of the household and does not become a professional opinion because the output looks formal.

Use the AI dog body language analyzer guide for the media workflow and the pet behavior photo analysis checklist before choosing an image.

A live consultation builds the individualized plan

A credible remote assessment usually includes history and veterinary records before the call, review of naturally captured video, a 60-to-90-minute interview, environmental discussion, immediate safety management and a written plan. Follow-up matters because behavior changes across weeks, not during one video meeting.

A veterinary assessment adds the medical layer

Pain, neurological disease, endocrine change, sensory loss, gastrointestinal disease and medication effects can all alter behavior. A veterinary behaviorist can integrate medical and behavioral evidence, but remote legal authority differs by jurisdiction. In many places the remote specialist must coordinate with the dog's local veterinarian for examination, diagnostics and prescribing. The prescribing section below explains that constraint.

The distinction that matters most: trainer vs consultant vs veterinary behaviorist

Before any specific credential, get the three tiers straight. Almost everything else follows from this.

Tier 1 — Trainers. Professionals certified to teach behaviors. Sit, recall, loose-leash walking, crate acclimation, puppy foundations, sport work, husbandry cooperation. Credentials here include CPDT-KA, KPA-CTP, and the Academy for Dog Trainers' CTC. A good trainer at this tier is skilled, evidence-literate, and worth every dollar for what the credential covers. Their exam did not test behavior-case management, and the good ones say so and refer up.

Tier 2 — Behavior consultants. Professionals certified to assess and modify problem behavior: fear, anxiety, reactivity, aggression, resource guarding, compulsive behavior, multi-dog household conflict. Credentials include CDBC (IAABC), CBCC-KA (CCPDT), and CSAT for separation-related cases specifically. Certification at this tier requires documented case work, written case studies, and review — not just an exam. They cannot diagnose medical conditions and cannot prescribe.

Tier 3 — Behaviorists in the strict sense. Two distinct qualifications share this word. DACVB — a licensed veterinarian who completed a residency in clinical behavioral medicine and passed board examination. CAAB / ACAAB — a doctoral- or master's-level applied animal behaviorist certified by the Animal Behavior Society. Only the DACVB can diagnose disease and prescribe medication, because only the DACVB is a veterinarian.

Here is the practical version. If someone advertises as an "online dog behaviorist" and the credential after their name is CPDT-KA or KPA-CTP, you have found a certified trainer using an unprotected word. That is not fraud and it is not necessarily a bad hire — it is a mismatch you need to catch before you pay for a package aimed at a problem they were never certified to assess.

The credential landscape, plainly

DACVB — Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Behaviorists

A veterinarian who completed veterinary school, then a residency of roughly three years in clinical animal behavior under an existing diplomate, then passed the board examination. There are on the order of a hundred practising in North America, which is why waiting lists are real and why remote appointments became common.

What they uniquely do: diagnose medical conditions, order and interpret diagnostics, prescribe and manage psychoactive medication, and handle cases with combined medical and behavioral components — severe generalised anxiety, panic, refractory aggression, storm and noise phobias needing pharmacological support, compulsive disorders, cognitive dysfunction.

When you specifically need one: medication is on the table; the case has failed with a non-vet consultant; the dog has a diagnosed medical condition interacting with behavior; the behavior appeared suddenly in a previously stable adult dog.

CAAB and ACAAB — Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist

Certified by the Animal Behavior Society. CAAB requires a doctoral degree in a behavioral science plus supervised professional experience; ACAAB is the associate level, built on a master's degree with the equivalent experience requirement. These are academically rigorous credentials held by a small number of people, and CAABs are frequently the most research-current practitioners in the field.

What they do: complex behavioral assessment and modification across species, expert-level case formulation, and — for those in academic settings — the research that everyone else's protocols come from.

What they cannot do: prescribe, unless they also hold a veterinary licence. Some do.

CDBC — Certified Dog Behavior Consultant (IAABC)

Issued by the International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants. Certification requires documented case hours, submitted written case studies, examination, and adherence to the LIMA standard — Least Intrusive, Minimally Aversive. The IAABC also certifies CCBC for cats, plus horse and parrot equivalents.

What they do: the working middle of the field. Fear, anxiety, reactivity, aggression, resource guarding, inter-dog conflict. A large share of the best remote practitioners hold this credential.

CBCC-KA — Certified Behavior Consultant Canine, Knowledge Assessed (CCPDT)

The behavior-consultant credential from the Certification Council for Professional Dog Trainers — the same body that issues CPDT-KA. It requires a substantial block of documented behavior-consulting hours beyond the training-hours requirement and a separate proctored exam. Functionally comparable in scope to CDBC. If you see CPDT-KA and CBCC-KA together, that is a trainer who has completed the behavior tier as well.

CSAT — Certified Separation Anxiety Trainer

Malena DeMartini's certification, specific to separation-related distress. Coursework, supervised case work, ongoing continuing education. Two things make it unusual and worth knowing about.

First, it is narrow by design — CSATs work one problem and work it deeply. Second, CSAT practice is remote by default, and for a structural reason: the treatment protocol requires the dog to be genuinely alone, so the consultant watches by video while the owner is out of the house. In-person attendance would contaminate the exact condition being treated. Separation anxiety is the clearest case in the whole field where remote is not a compromise but the correct medium. See dog separation anxiety.

The trainer credentials — CPDT-KA, KPA-CTP, CTC

CPDT-KA (Certified Professional Dog Trainer, Knowledge Assessed) from CCPDT requires documented training hours — currently 300 within a recent window — a signed reference attestation, and a proctored exam, with continuing education to maintain. CPDT-KSA adds a hands-on skills assessment.

KPA-CTP (Karen Pryor Academy Certified Training Partner) is a roughly six-month program combining coursework with supervised practical work, rooted in operant conditioning. Strong mechanical skills are the hallmark.

CTC (Certificate in Training and Counseling, Academy for Dog Trainers) is a demanding two-year program founded by Jean Donaldson, unusually strong on behavior-change science and on client counselling. It is a trainer credential, but at the upper end of one.

All three signal force-free methodology and genuine competence. None of them is a behavior-consultant credential. That is the single most useful sentence in this article. A CPDT-KA running a leash-reactivity case may be excellent — many are — but the certification did not assess that competency, so you are evaluating the individual, not the credential.

Fear Free Certified Professional is a separate axis entirely: low-stress handling technique, applicable to vets, groomers, daycares, and trainers. Treat it as a valuable secondary signal, never as a primary behavior qualification.

Comparison table

Ranges are indicative for the United States and vary substantially by region and practitioner seniority. Remote pricing is usually at or slightly below in-person, since travel time disappears — but the good practitioners do not discount heavily, because the consultation work is the same.

What remote consults genuinely do well

Video is not a degraded version of in-person for every case. For several, it is the superior format.

Separation anxiety. Covered above, and worth repeating because it is the strongest example. The dog must be alone for the protocol to work. Remote observation is the only way to watch a genuinely alone dog without being present. Owners also get repeated coaching between sessions without anyone travelling, which matters for a protocol run in daily increments.

Coaching the human. This is most of behavior work and almost nobody says so out loud. The consultant is not going to modify your dog's behavior — you are, in the eleven hours a week between sessions. Video is a perfectly good medium for teaching timing, marker use, reinforcement placement, threshold judgement, and management setup. A consultant watching your recorded reps and correcting your mechanics frame by frame is doing more useful work than one who took the leash in your driveway.

Reactivity work. Counterintuitive but true in practice. Leash reactivity protocols depend on distance management and trigger control on real walks, on your real route, which the consultant would not have been present for anyway. Owner-recorded walk footage — reviewed asynchronously, then discussed — often yields a better read of the actual pattern than a single artificial in-person setup where the consultant is a novel stimulus adding to the dog's load. The distinction between reactive and aggressive behavior is also easier to establish across multiple recorded incidents than in one visit.

Husbandry and cooperative care. Nail trims, ear cleaning, muzzle conditioning, harness acclimation, injection tolerance. These are shaped in short daily sessions at home with the actual equipment. Remote coaching plus video review fits the training structure exactly.

Puppy raising and socialisation planning. Time-sensitive work where the constraint is the owner's plan quality, not physical presence. A remote consult in week one of the socialisation window is worth more than an in-person visit three weeks later.

Environmental and management design. A camera walk-through of the house — sightlines from the front window, where the crate sits, where the resource conflicts happen at feeding time — is often more informative than an in-person visit, because the household is behaving normally rather than performing for a guest.

Access. There are roughly a hundred DACVBs in North America and a finite number of CAABs. Geography should not decide whether a dog gets expert care, and remote consultation is the only reason most owners can reach either.

What remote consults cannot do

Being straight about the limits is the point of this page.

A physical examination. No video assesses joint range of motion, palpates an abdomen, looks at the back of a mouth, checks for pain on spinal palpation, or measures blood pressure. This matters enormously, because a large share of behavior cases have a medical driver — pain in particular. Any sudden behavior change in a previously stable adult dog is a veterinary appointment before it is a behavior appointment, and no remote consultant can substitute for one.

Diagnosis and prescribing without a relationship. Covered in full in the next section — it is the sharpest constraint in remote behavior work and the one nobody advertises.

Hands-on risk assessment for serious bite cases. Remote consultants do work aggression, and many work it well. But a case with a significant bite history, a bite to a child, a household with genuine safety exposure, or a dog whose behavior is escalating unpredictably benefits from an in-person assessment by someone who can observe threshold and handling directly and can build a management plan they have physically seen. If a remote consultant takes a serious bite case without discussing in-person referral, that is information about the consultant.

Cases where the owner cannot safely film. If capturing the behavior requires the owner to place themselves near a dog that has bitten, the request itself is unsafe. Good consultants use camera placement and remote triggers instead, and refuse setups that put clients at risk.

Behavior that will not appear on camera. Some patterns are situational, infrequent, or extinguish when a phone comes out. Consultants work around this with static cameras and long recording windows, but the constraint is real, and a case built on three seconds of blurry footage is a case built on very little.

Compensating for mechanics the owner cannot execute. In person, a consultant can take the leash and demonstrate on your dog. Remotely they cannot. For owners with physical limitations, low confidence, or a dog physically difficult to handle, this is a genuine ceiling — and a hybrid model, in-person for handling sessions plus remote for planning and follow-up, is usually the right structure.

Households where the environment cannot be conveyed. Multi-dog conflict in a complex home, dogs with strong territorial patterns triggered by specific architecture, or cases where the owner's own account of events is unreliable. Some things need eyes in the room.

The prescribing problem nobody mentions

This one is worth its own section because it silently determines what a remote veterinary consult can deliver.

In the United States, a veterinarian must have a veterinarian-client-patient relationship (VCPR) before diagnosing or prescribing. Federal rules governing extra-label drug use — which is what most behavioral psychopharmacology in dogs is — require a valid VCPR, and the federal definition rests on the veterinarian having examined the animal or having made medically appropriate visits to where the animal is kept. State practice acts add their own definitions on top, and they vary: a minority of states now permit a VCPR to be established via telemedicine, sometimes with restrictions on which drugs may then be prescribed, while most still require an in-person examination first. The rules have been changing state by state, so verify the current position where you live rather than trusting a service page.

The practical consequence: a DACVB three states away, consulting purely by video, often cannot write your prescription directly. What actually happens in well-run remote veterinary behavior practice is a collaborative model — the specialist performs the behavioral consultation, produces a written diagnostic assessment and treatment plan including specific drug, dose, and monitoring recommendations, and your local primary-care veterinarian, who does hold a VCPR, writes and manages the prescription. This works well. It also means you need a functioning relationship with a local vet before you book the specialist.

Questions to ask before paying a remote veterinary behaviorist:

• Are you licensed in my state, and can you establish a VCPR remotely here?
• If not, do you work through my primary veterinarian, and what does that require of them?
• Will I receive a written report my vet can act on directly?
• Who monitors bloodwork and dose adjustments, and at what intervals?

Non-veterinary consultants — CDBC, CAAB, CSAT — have no prescribing authority to begin with, so this issue does not arise for them. It arises the moment medication is part of the plan, which for anxiety and aggression cases is often.

Cost ranges, and what actually drives them

The table above gives the numbers. What is more useful is understanding what you are paying for, because sticker price is a poor comparison tool across tiers.

What is included varies enormously. A $250 CDBC session that includes a pre-session written history review, a 90-minute consultation, a written plan delivered within a week, and two weeks of email support is cheaper in real terms than a $150 session that is 60 minutes of conversation and nothing else. Ask what the deliverables are before comparing prices.

Behavior work is a program, not an appointment. Single sessions rarely resolve a genuine behavior case. Realistic budgeting: a CDBC-level case typically runs three to five sessions over two to three months, so $600–1,200 total. A DACVB case runs an initial consult plus two to four follow-ups over six months, plus medication and monitoring bloodwork through your local vet, so $900–2,000 all-in is a fair planning figure. CSAT programs are explicitly priced as multi-week programs for this reason, and that honesty is a point in their favour.

Cheaper options that are legitimate: veterinary teaching hospitals with behavior services, which often run at reduced rates and sometimes offer remote options; shelter and rescue behavior helplines; group classes with a CPDT-KA or KPA-CTP for foundations work you can do yourself alongside a consultant-led plan.

One cost note that surprises people: a small but growing number of pet insurance policies now include behavioral coverage, and some cover consultations with credentialed professionals. Most standard policies do not. Check the wording before assuming either way.

Red flags

Any single item here is sufficient reason to walk away.

Guaranteed results, or a guaranteed timeline. "Reactivity resolved in four weeks." "100% success rate." Behavior is not a fixed-duration problem and outcomes depend heavily on the owner's execution and the dog's medical status, neither of which the consultant controls. A guarantee is either ignorance or a sales tactic.

"Balanced" methodology. In practice this is a euphemism for including aversive tools alongside reinforcement. It appears on service pages precisely because the plain description is less marketable.

E-collars, prong collars, choke chains, or their euphemisms. Watch for "remote collar," "stim," "e-touch," "tap," "pressure," and "communication collar." AVSAB explicitly recommends against aversive tools, and the evidence base supports that position: Ziv's review in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior (2017) found consistent associations between aversive methods and stress and problem behavior, and China, Mills and Cooper (2020, Frontiers in Veterinary Science) found reward-based training at least as effective as e-collar training for recall, with better welfare indicators. See positive reinforcement vs balanced training.

Dominance, alpha, or pack-leadership language. The model was retracted by the researcher whose captive-wolf observations produced it. A practitioner still using the framework in 2026 is decades behind. See why dominance theory is wrong.

Board-and-train, especially where the owner is not present. The specific problem is not just the tool risk, though unsupervised board-and-train is where aversive equipment most often appears out of sight. It is structural: the owner is the person who needs the training. A dog returned after three weeks goes back into the same household with the same handler mechanics and the same environmental triggers, and the behavior returns. Remote-adjacent variants — "send us video and we'll fix it," "drop your dog with our partner facility" — carry the same objection.

No intake process. If you can book a behavior case in two clicks and nobody has asked for a medical history, that is not a behavior consultation.

Refusing or discouraging veterinary involvement. Including any practitioner who suggests reducing or stopping medication your vet prescribed. Non-veterinarians do not make that call.

Diagnosis from a short call or a single video. Assessment requires history. A confident label after ten minutes is a red flag regardless of how correct it eventually turns out to be.

Large upfront packages with no refund policy, high-pressure booking, or a discount that expires today.

Selling supplements or devices as the primary intervention. Adjuncts can have a place, chosen with a veterinarian. A plan whose core is a product you buy from the consultant is a product sale.

Cannot name the science. Ask what informs their approach. A credentialed professional can name AVSAB, ACVB, LIMA, Overall, Donaldson, McConnell, the Herron data. "In my experience, over twenty years" is not an answer.

How to actually vet someone

Most credentialed professionals offer a free fifteen- to thirty-minute discovery call. Take it, and treat it as an interview.

Ask these:

1. What credential do you hold, who issued it, and when did you last recertify? Verify independently on the issuing body's directory. Credentials lapse.
2. What proportion of your caseload looks like mine? Two CDBCs can have entirely different sub-specialties. You want someone who works your problem weekly, not annually.
3. What tools do you use, and what tools do you refuse to use? The refusal list is more informative than the use list. A clear "no prongs, no e-collars, no leash corrections" is what you want to hear.
4. What happens if my dog needs medication? The correct answers are "I refer to your veterinarian" or "I refer to a DACVB." An answer that involves them recommending a specific drug is wrong unless they are a veterinarian.
5. Walk me through your intake. Detail below.
6. Do I get a written plan, and when? Yes, and within days. A plan that exists only in your notes from a call is not a plan.
7. What does the plan look like at week one versus week eight? Good answers put environmental management first and training protocols second. Any plan with no management component is incomplete.
8. What is your stopping rule? At what point do you conclude this is not working and refer on? Practitioners who have thought about this are the ones you want.
9. Do you carry professional liability insurance? Credentialed professionals generally do.
10. What is your cancellation and refund policy? Get it in writing before paying for a package.

What a good remote intake looks like:

• A written history form sent before the session — acquisition history, full medical history, diet, daily routine, previous training including any aversive tools used, household composition, and an incident log with dates and specifics.
• A request for veterinary records and consent to contact your veterinarian directly.
• Video submitted in advance, reviewed before the call rather than watched live for the first time.
• A camera tour of the environment — the rooms, the front window, the doorway, where the dog sleeps, where conflicts occur.
• Sixty to ninety minutes for the first session. Behavior history-taking cannot be done in thirty.
• A written plan afterwards, sequenced, with management first.
• An explicit safety and management protocol for any case with a bite risk, delivered before anything else.
• Scheduled follow-ups and a defined between-session support channel.

If the first session is a half hour of generic advice and no written plan, the wrong professional was hired — remote or otherwise. This mirrors the in-person standard covered in how to find a credentialed behaviorist.

Where to actually search

Search the directories, not the search engine. Directory listings are filtered by the certifying body; search results are filtered by marketing budget.

• IAABC — CDBC, CCBC, and other consultant certifications, with a searchable directory that includes remote availability.
• DACVB — the American College of Veterinary Behaviorists diplomate directory. Start here if medication is likely.
• AVSAB — position statements plus a professional directory; the reference point for what force-free actually means.
• Animal Behavior Society — the CAAB and ACAAB directory.
• CCPDT — CPDT-KA, CPDT-KSA, and CBCC-KA.
• Karen Pryor Academy — KPA-CTP directory.
• Academy for Dog Trainers — CTC graduate directory.
• Malena DeMartini's CSAT directory — separation anxiety specialists, almost all working remotely.
• Fear Free — certified veterinary practices, groomers, and trainers.
• Veterinary teaching hospitals — many run behavior services with remote options and reduced rates.

Cross-check any name you find against the issuing body's own listing. Credentials on a personal website are self-reported.

What people get wrong about online behavior help

Assuming remote is the budget option. It is not, at the upper tiers. A remote DACVB consult costs roughly what an in-person one does, because the consultation itself is the work. What remote saves is travel, waiting lists, and geography.

Booking a behavior case with a trainer because the trainer was available sooner. Availability is not a proxy for fit. A three-week wait for the right tier beats an immediate booking with the wrong one.

Treating the first session as the deliverable. It is the diagnostic. The value is in the plan and the follow-through, and owners who disappear after session one usually conclude that behavior work does not function.

Expecting the consultant to fix the dog. They are training you. Owners who accept this early get results; owners who resist it spend money on sessions and change nothing between them.

Skipping the veterinarian because the case "is obviously behavioral." It frequently is not. Pain is the most commonly missed driver in behavior cases, and remote consultants have no way to detect it.

Judging a practitioner by production values. A polished site and a large following are marketing outputs. Some of the strongest consultants in the field have plain websites and no social presence at all.

Where PetTranslator.ai fits — and where it does not

Straightforwardly: PetTranslator.ai is a reading and triage instrument. It is not a behavior consultant and it is not a substitute for one. A real case — reactivity, aggression, separation distress, a sudden behavior change — needs a credentialed professional and, first, a veterinarian. The tool says so when a case looks like one.

What it is useful for is the part owners are worst at: describing what they saw. Upload a clear photo and it returns a structured read — the observable body-language markers, a behavioral interpretation, a confidence score with its reasoning, an explicit list of what could not be assessed from a single frame, and a Do/Avoid plan. Used across days it produces a dated record, which is exactly the material a remote consultant's intake form asks for and almost nobody arrives with. It also builds the reading fluency that makes you a better observer between sessions, which is where behavior change actually happens.

For a fuller account of what this class of tool can and cannot do, see do pet translator apps work and what is my dog trying to tell me.

Sources

• C-BARQ: Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire — University of Pennsylvania's validated, standardized owner-report tool for baseline and follow-up behavioral evaluation.

• AAHA client tools: general behavior questionnaires — dog behavior screening questionnaire and its explicit complete-history limitation.

• AVSAB Position Statement on Humane Dog Training (2021) — American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. The professional standard for force-free methodology and the explicit rejection of aversive tools.

• AVSAB Position Statement on the Use of Dominance Theory in Behavior Modification of Animals.

• Ziv, G. (2017). "The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs — a review." Journal of Veterinary Behavior. Review of the association between aversive methods and stress and problem behavior.

• China, L., Mills, D. S., Cooper, J. J. (2020). "Efficacy of dog training with and without remote electronic collars vs. a focus on positive reinforcement." Frontiers in Veterinary Science.

• Herron, M. E., Shofer, F. S., Reisner, I. R. (2009). "Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors." Journal of Veterinary Behavior.

• Overall, K. (2013). Manual of Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Dogs and Cats. Elsevier. The clinical reference for behavioral diagnosis and the medical-workup-first principle.

• DeMartini-Price, M. (2014). Treating Separation Anxiety in Dogs. Dogwise. The protocol behind the CSAT certification and its remote delivery model.

• AAHA Canine and Feline Behavior Management Guidelines — American Animal Hospital Association.

• American College of Veterinary Behaviorists (dacvb.org), IAABC (iaabc.org), CCPDT (ccpdt.org), and the Animal Behavior Society — public credential standards and searchable directories for every certification named above.

• US FDA regulations on extra-label drug use in animals — the federal basis of the veterinarian-client-patient relationship requirement. State practice acts add further requirements and differ; verify locally.

Khabir Mughal is the founder of PetTranslator.ai. This article was reviewed against the AVSAB Position Statement on Humane Dog Training and the published credential standards of the ACVB, Animal Behavior Society, IAABC, and CCPDT before publication. Cost figures are indicative US ranges and are not quotes. It is not veterinary or legal advice — verify prescribing rules in your own jurisdiction.